religious order

religious order, in Roman Catholicism, a group of men or women who have professed solemn vows to live together under a religious rule (a regulation for the group’s conduct). Nuns, monks, friars, and some priests are members of such orders. Among well-known religious orders are the Jesuits, Benedictines, Dominicans, and Franciscans. Some orders have both male and female divisions (living in separate communities), whereas others have only one division.

Since the 20th century, membership in religious orders has declined, especially in Europe and parts of North America. Vatican II (1962–65) brought modernizations to many religious communities, yet the Roman Catholic hierarchy has maintained rules that require priestly celibacy and forbid marriage for most clergy (deacons being the exception) and all other consecrated religious. In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, several religious orders faced accusations of having abused people in their care, in particular children, and in many of these cases the orders were required to pay huge sums of money to compensate their victims.

Nonetheless, the life of people who enter religious communities continues to fascinate many laypeople. Indeed, the lives of religious members follow many different paths, even as they all have in common a desire to serve God and emulate the example of Jesus. Some religious live as hermits in deserts or other isolated places, as did St. Anthony of Egypt, Julian of Norwich, and St. Charles de Foucauld. Others become writers (Thomas Merton), teachers (Wendy Beckett), scientists (Gregor Mendel), or activists (Daniel Berrigan, Thea Bowman, and Helen Prejean). Members of religious orders have founded important movements such as liberation theology (Gustavo Gutiérrez), inspired people from all walks of life to serve others (Mother Teresa), and even led the Roman Catholic Church as pope (Francis).

Differences between religious communities and members

Religious orders are sometimes confused with religious congregations, which are communities in which the members make simple vows. Whereas solemn vows are perpetual, simple vows may be perpetual or temporary. The difference between the two is subtle: solemn vows, though dispensable under certain conditions, are meant to be a more permanent and durable consecration than simple vows. In addition, solemn vows have received recognition from the Roman Catholic Church, which is usually represented by a superior of the order, and the vows are professed publicly. Simple vows can be made in public or private, but they have not received official recognition from the church.

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There are many other terms related to religious communities that people may confuse or misunderstand. A common example is the difference between nun and sister. Both terms are commonly used to refer to a woman who has professed religious vows, and “Sister” is the appropriate title for addressing her, regardless of what type of order she belongs to. Strictly speaking, however, a nun is a religious woman who has taken solemn vows and lives in a contemplative order centered on a life of prayer. A sister is a member of an active (or apostolic) order that permits work outside the order’s convent, such as a teacher or health care worker. Religious sisters make simple vows.

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Additionally, not all members of religious orders are ordained—i.e., they do not necessarily receive holy orders. In Roman Catholicism, priests and deacons must be ordained to serve in their roles. There are also monks and friars who have been ordained and can therefore serve as priests. For example, in the early 1940s American writer Thomas Merton entered the Trappist Abbey of Gethsemani in Kentucky and lived there as a monk, taking “Louis” as his monastic name; in 1949 he was ordained a priest, becoming “Father Louis.” Indeed, ordained men are respectfully addressed as father, regardless of their rank (whether a pope or a parish priest). Monks and friars who have not received holy orders are called brothers and are usually addressed by this title.

Definitions

The following are some common terms regarding religious orders.

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• In apostolic, also called active, orders members work outside their convent or monastery, often as teachers, missionaries, health care workers, or parish ministers (example: Vincentians).
• In cenobitic orders members live communally and spend their time in prayer and contemplation (example: Benedictines).
• In clerical orders members are ordained priests and make simple vows (example: Passionists).
• In cloistered, also called enclosed, orders members remain within their convent and need permission to leave the premises except in medical emergencies (example: Poor Clares).
• In contemplative orders members primarily focus on prayer in their daily routine. Their community may be cloistered or semi-cloistered, in which members have some contact with the outside world (example: Trappists).
• In eremitic, also called idiorrhythmic, orders members totally withdraw from society and live in solitude in a constant state of prayer. They may live as hermits or in separate cells within a small community (example: Carthusians).
• In mendicant orders members take a vow of poverty and support themselves by work and charitable contributions (examples: Franciscans and Dominicans).

• An abbot/abbess is a man/woman who serves as the superior of a monastic community, especially those that follow the Benedictine Rule.
• A clerk regular is a man (usually an ordained priest) who makes solemn vows and serves an active pastoral role, whereas a canon regular is a man who makes solemn vows and serves a contemplative role.
• A friar is a man who belongs to any mendicant religious order. They make vows and may also be ordained as priests.
• A novice is a member of a religious community who has been admitted on probationary terms and has not yet taken a vow.
• An oblate is a layperson who is connected with a religious order and lives according to its rule. Oblates usually do not live with the religious community or make vows.
• A prior/prioress is a man/woman who serves as the superior of a priory or who serves directly under an abbot/abbess in an abbey.

• An abbey is a group of buildings housing a monastery or convent that is centered on an abbey church or cathedral and governed under the direction of an abbot/abbess.
• A convent, also called a nunnery, is a building or series of buildings where an order of nuns lives.
• A monastery is a building or series of buildings where an order of monks lives.
• A motherhouse is the founding house of a religious order.
• A priory is a smaller monastery or convent that is governed by a prior or prioress.
• A seminary is a school or college that trains priests and other religious ministers.

• Charism is the spiritual gift, ability, or power given to a Christian or a Christian community by the Holy Spirit for the good of the church. Whereas a rule prescribes the conduct of a religious order, charism guides its mission and spirit.
• Consecration is the act by which members of religious orders dedicate themselves permanently to God by taking a solemn vow.
• A habit is the distinctive garb of members of religious orders. Some orders require their members to wear religious garb at all times, whereas others allow their members to wear modern clothing. This allowance became common among orders of women after Vatican II.
• A religious is a member of a religious order, used as a noun. For example, nuns and sisters are often called women religious.
• A rule is a regulation that prescribes the daily routine and all other conduct of a monastic community. The most famous example is the Benedictine Rule, which was prescribed by the 6th-century monk St. Benedict of Nursia.
• Vocation is a divine call to enter religious life.

Decline in religious and vocations

Many religious orders began to see a sharp decline in the latter half of the 20th century, a trend that continued well into the 21st century. The modernizations of Vatican II and the increasing secularization of society have often been blamed for the drop in vocations, but some historians have noted a decline earlier in the 20th century. Vatican II undoubtedly changed many aspects of religious life, such as relaxing requirements that religious women wear the distinctive nun’s habit. It also significantly increased the role of laypeople, making them more equal to consecrated religious in the church’s hierarchy.

At the same time, some Roman Catholics believed the changes of Vatican II did not go far enough. The church upheld rules against priests being allowed to marry and women being ordained, as well as the requirement that priests remain celibate. Many religious turned away from their vocations, and the church struggled to recruit new priests and nuns to fill the void of those who left. Laypeople were hired as nurses and teachers in hospitals and parochial schools that had previously relied on nuns, brothers, and priests to serve in those roles. For example, in Roman Catholic schools in the United States, the number of teacher-nuns declined from 100,000 in 1965 to fewer than 4,000 in the 21st century.

In addition, the church was rocked by accusations of sexual abuse against children and women by clergy and consecrated religious. Many of these accusations led to costly lawsuits, huge payouts to victims, and a loss of trust in religious institutions. By 2004 the Roman Catholic Church worldwide had paid out more than $1 billion (U.S.) in jury awards, settlements, and legal fees. These abuse cases developed in many parts of the globe, from the United States and Canada to Ireland, France, and Germany to the Philippines and East Timor.

Some parts of the world saw a rise in vocations, however. In Latin America, for example, the number of priests doubled between 2000 and 2020. In Africa there were gains in the number of priests, bishops, women religious, and seminarians in the first quarter of the 21st century.

List of religious orders and congregations