climate

Table of Contents

Introduction
Solar radiation and temperature
- Solar radiation
  - Distribution of radiant energy from the Sun
  - Effects of the atmosphere
  - Average radiation budgets
  - Surface-energy budgets
- Temperature
  - Global variation of mean temperature
  - Diurnal, seasonal, and extreme temperatures
  - Variation with height
  - Circulation, currents, and ocean-atmosphere interaction
  - Short-term temperature changes
Atmospheric humidity and precipitation
- Atmospheric humidity
  - Humidity indexes
    - Absolute humidity
    - Specific humidity
    - Relative humidity
  - Relation between temperature and humidity
  - Humidity and climate
    - Average relative humidity
    - Evaporation and humidity
- Precipitation
  - Origin of precipitation in clouds
    - Cloud formation
    - Cloud types
    - Mechanisms of precipitation release
    - Showers, thunderstorms, and hail
  - Types of precipitation
    - Drizzle
    - Rain and freezing rain
    - Snow and sleet
    - Hail
  - World distribution of precipitation
    - Regional and latitudinal distribution
    - Amounts and variability
  - Effects of precipitation
    - Raindrop impact and soil erosion
    - Surface runoff
Atmospheric pressure and wind
- Atmospheric pressure
- Wind
  - Relationship of wind to pressure and governing forces
  - Cyclones and anticyclones
    - Extratropical cyclones
    - Anticyclones
    - Cyclone and anticyclone climatology
  - Local winds
    - Scale classes
    - Local wind systems
  - Zonal surface winds
- Monsoons
  - Diurnal variability
  - Intra-annual variability
  - Interannual variability
- Upper-level winds
  - Characteristics
  - Propagation and development of waves
  - Relationships to surface features
  - Jet streams
  - Winds in the stratosphere and mesosphere
Climate and the oceans
- The ocean surface and climate anomalies
- Formation of tropical cyclones
  - Conditions associated with cyclone formation
  - Effects of tropical cyclones on ocean waters
  - Influence on atmospheric circulation and rainfall
- Poleward transfer of heat
  - Thermohaline circulation
  - The Gulf Stream
  - The Kuroshio
- El Niño/Southern Oscillation and climatic change
  - The El Niño phenomenon
  - The Southern Oscillation
Climate and life
- The Gaia hypothesis
- The evolution of life and the atmosphere
- The role of the biosphere in the Earth-atmosphere system
  - The biosphere and Earth’s energy budget
  - The cycling of biogenic atmospheric gases
  - Biosphere controls on the structure of the atmosphere
  - Biosphere controls on the planetary boundary layer
  - Biosphere controls on maximum temperatures by evaporation and transpiration
  - Biosphere controls on minimum temperatures
  - Climate and changes in the albedo of the surface
  - The effect of vegetation patchiness on mesoscale climates
  - Biosphere controls on surface friction and localized winds
  - Biosphere impacts on precipitation processes
    - Cloud condensation nuclei
    - Biogenic ice nuclei
    - Recycled rainfall
- Climate, humans, and human affairs

References & Edit History Related Topics

Images & Videos

What's the difference between weather and climate?

See how differing amounts of solar radiation at the poles and Equator affect Earth's climate and atmosphere

Average exchange of energy between the surface, the atmosphere, and space, as percentages of incident solar radiation (1 unit = 3.4 watts per square metre).

Figure 1: Average exchange of energy between the surface, atmosphere, and space, as percentages of incident solar radiation (1 unit = 3.4 watts per square metre).

major surface currents of the oceans

Global distribution of mean annual evaporation (in centimetres).

diagram of the hydrologic cycle of water

Follow water in its many forms, from glaciers and clouds to freshwater rivers and saltwater oceans

See how water transforms between liquid, ice, and vapour in the water cycle

For Students

climate summary

Read Next

Average temperature in the United States during August 2016, weather

What’s the Difference Between Weather and Climate?

High-oblique view of the extra-tropical unnamed cyclone that merged with Hurricane Earl is featured in this image taken by an Expedition 24 crew member on the International Space Station (Sept. 2010).

Is the Number of Hurricanes Increasing?

Brown layer of Los Angeles smog; photo taken on November 10, 2016.(California, environment, smog)

What's the Difference Between Global Warming and Climate Change?

Discover

NBA Lakers Celtics Finals Kevin Garnett shooting.

10 Great Sports Rivalries

airplane in flight (plane, aircraft, flying)

7 Puzzling Plane Disappearances

Scolex (head) of the tapeworm Taenia solium. The hooks of the scolex enable the tapeworm to attach to the intestinal wall.

Uninvited Guests: The 7 Worst Parasitic Worms

Dancers at a Cinco de Mayo festival at the Mission District, San Francisco, California. (Photo dated 2019.) holidays

Is Cinco de Mayo Mexico's Independence Day?

Paul Revere. "The bloody massacre perpetrated in King Street Boston on March 5th 1770 by a party of the 29th Regt.," engraved by Paul Revere. Boston Massacre.

There’s a Riot Goin’ On: Riots in U.S. History (Part One)

Time zone map with standard time zones and International Date Line

Why Are Some Time Zones 30 Minutes Off Instead of an Hour?

Estimated battle casualties, Normandy invasion, World War II. WWII, D-Day

Estimated Battle Casualties During the Normandy Invasion and Campaign to Liberate Paris (June–August 1944)

climate: Related Content

Written and fact-checked by The Information Architects of Encyclopaedia Britannica

Last Updated: May 30, 2025

News •

Half of world's population endured extra month of extreme heat due to climate change, experts say • May 30, 2025, 3:11 AM ET (AP)

Get ready for several years of killer heat, top weather forecasters warn • May 28, 2025, 3:39 PM ET (AP)

Photos and Videos

Average exchange of energy between the surface, the atmosphere, and space, as percentages of incident solar radiation (1 unit = 3.4 watts per square metre).

Figure 1: Average exchange of energy between the surface, atmosphere, and space, as percentages of incident solar radiation (1 unit = 3.4 watts per square metre).

major surface currents of the oceans

Global distribution of mean annual evaporation (in centimetres).

diagram of the hydrologic cycle of water

cirrus fibratus clouds

Altocumulus undulatus, a cloud layer of shaded, regularly arranged rolls.

orographic lift

What's the difference between weather and climate?

See how differing amounts of solar radiation at the poles and Equator affect Earth's climate and atmosphere

Follow water in its many forms, from glaciers and clouds to freshwater rivers and saltwater oceans

See how water transforms between liquid, ice, and vapour in the water cycle

Examine how rapid warm-air updrafts form cumulonimbus thunderclouds that produce heavy rains and lightning

See All Videos and Images →

Topics

genetic method atmospheric general circulation model continental climate Terjung’s Comfort Index temperate climate North China climate mesoclimate type A climate Yangtze valley climate tierra caliente geostrophic motion plate tectonics biosphere ecosystem erosion seismic wave geochemical cycle river How Old Is Earth?Equator

Dig Deeper: More Articles That Discuss This Topic

Key People

Eduard Brückner

Austrian geographer and climatologist

Abbot, Charles Greeley

Charles Greeley Abbot

American astrophysicist

Frank Hall Knowlton

American paleobotanist

Ellsworth Huntington

American geographer

Quiz

rain. Child in the rain, wearing a rain coat, under a yellow umbrella. April Showers weather climate rain storm water drops

April Showers to March’s Lions and Lambs

Lightning over a farm field. Weather electricity thunderstorm light energy tree

Facts You Should Know: Weather Quiz

Iceland, Glacier lagoon (Jokulsarlon)

Winter Weather Words Quiz

Demystified

Brown layer of Los Angeles smog; photo taken on November 10, 2016.(California, environment, smog)

What's the Difference Between Global Warming and Climate Change?

Average temperature in the United States during August 2016, weather

What’s the Difference Between Weather and Climate?